34: Arawak and bird language
(pertaining to Arawak and other languages)
Written by Linden Alexander Pentecost and published by Linden Alexander Pentecost on the 16th of July 2024. This is the first article I have published since arriving back in the UK (all my publications are published in the UK, I am also born in the UK and am a UK-resident). This article was also written in the UK, as were most (all are published in the UK). This article or page was published on one of my websites, namely:www.bookofdunbarra.co.uk and contains entirely separate content to that within the ebooks published via this website, and vice versa. The web address of this article is: https://www.bookofdunbarra.co.uk/website-articles-30-45/34-arawak-and-bird-language .This article contains "Introductory comments", "Introduction to "bird language" and symbolism in relation to this article", "My own new work on sound symbolism in Arawak pertaining to Finnish, with a comparison table", "Elaboration on some of the root-connections given in the table above", "Further comments pertaining to the etymologies and to Maori", "Sound symbolism in Guaymí", "More on sound symbolism, more on "language of the birds", and examples of whistled language and how they pertain to mythology", "Other works on related topics by the author" and "References:". This article or page contains 5553 words, and is so far the longest online article/page published on this website.
Introductory comments
Note: all Arawak vocabulary in this article, given in the main text in bold, is from the source The Arawak language of Guiana by C. H. De Goeje (2) In the table these are not given in bold however. Two references are given in the first paragraph and are not cited with numbers, whilst the primarily 11 references including (2) are listed at the end of the article fully.
Note that the Arawak language referred to in this article refers to the Arawak/Locono language specifically (spoken in French Guiana, Guyana, Suriname and Venezuela), and not to the Arawak language family as a whole.
Note: recently I had another article published with some stuff about Finnish, in Silly Linguistics, titled Language in Southern Sweden continued: Värmländska, Värmland Finnish, Blå Jungfrun and Öländska, where I give among other things, an example of Värmlandic Finnish compared with Kirjakieli Finnish. This is entirely separate from the table of Arawak and Finnish words in the article currently in front of you (34: Arawak and bird language
(pertaining to Arawak and other languages)). Like all my other articles, the article in front of you is entirely new and unpublished until now (the 16th of July 2024).
Introduction to "bird language" and symbolism in relation to this article
I was in Jamaica many years ago, in the Blue Mountains. My dad and I listened to some music, and I thought of the idea of communication with birds. Little did I realise that many years later, these thoughts and feelings would come together for me to write this article. The idea of the “language of the birds”, or of a divine language, connecting humans to the gods, to nature and to the skies, is a concept found in many world religions and belief systems; including for example as mentioned by the Greek author Apollonius Rhodius, with regards to the figurehead of the ship Argo, being built from the oak of a sacred grove, and being able to speak the language of birds. Another example is the Russian oral history Птичий язык "Language of the Birds" as collected by Александр Николаевич Афанасьев, Alexander Nikolayevich Afanasyev and published in his book Народные русские сказки, “Russian Fairy Tales”.
Sound symbolism, and more generally the idea of a real relationship between nature and language, is I would say quite inherent throughout world cultures. In some cases it can only be understood through knowing the underlying philosophy and cultural reasoning for a certain instance of symbolism. At other times, onomatopoeic words demonstrate to us in a more tangible way how indeed human words can also be, in a sense from nature; that in a sense they existed in some way before we spoke them. Take for example the English verb “bob”, as in to “bob up and down”. And its similarity to Proto-Afro-Asiatic *ʕibVb- "weight" (1) (in the same we use "bob" in English to mean "bob up and down", "weight" or "money"), and Yucatec Mayan baab – to swim. It could be argued that all of these words in a sense replicate the geometry, motion and sound of “bobbing in and out of water”. Even though these languages are, on the surface, unrelated, these words demonstrate how these similar ideas are associated with similar sounds in these languages. In a sense, it could be argued that these words “come from” or are based upon an inherent set of frequencies and sound patterns/geometry within the cosmos itself.
On page 238 of source (2), The Arawak language of Guiana by C. H. De Goeje, the author implies that the syllable le – “talking” is connected to the actual sound made in for example the word a-leledü – “chatting together/talking through one another”, (given in German in source (2) as durch einander plaudern). The author implies, in different words, the idea that the word in question, a-leledü, sounds like the sound le - "talking". The author of source (2) may be describing what would could be called onomatopoeia. From this perspective, onomatopoeic and symbolic use of language could be considered as something that connects one to the cosmos, and which even to some extent dissolves the boundaries between observer and observed, self and other. (I have discussed elsewhere many examples of this and its relationship to onomatopoeia). Such words in Arawak and in many other languages are frequently identified in the names of birds, also connecting onomatopoeia and sacred language in general to the idea of the "language of the birds". The author of source (2) mentions wakokwa - "a pigeon", in relation to this.
In other senses, less obvious sound symbolism is a knowledge inherent to the indigenous worldview, mythology and language of all peoples. In the book, The Arawak language of Guiana by C. H. De Goeje (2), the author gives many examples of how he understood this to work in Arawak, and it is extremely interesting. The author C. H. De Goeje also seems to imply, in my opinion, that a special sound symbolism exists within even the smaller syllables and individual sounds of Arawak, which I feel he implies, show a very specific relationship between tangible or physical things, mental concepts and emotions. I would personally say that a connection to mythology and ancestry is also certainly implied. I certainly feel that a connection between words, language, and mythological, ancestral time, is present across indigenous cultures as a whole. To discuss the author of source (2)'s intricate and deep discussions of the Arawak language's philosophy would be something I would have to dedicate to another article, for his research on the topic is another whole aspect to this topic. This article (the one in front of you) relates to my own research on this topic. But I will say for example, that the author C. H. De Goeje in (2) implies a connection between the idea in question and the word itself, on page 238 of (2) he implies, in different words to mine, what I would describe as a connection between the thing being described, the mental idea, the means of speech and the sound of the word itself (I have not quoted directly from the book). From this perspective, onomatopoeic and symbolic use of language could be considered as something that connects one to the cosmos, and which even to some extent dissolves the boundaries between observer and observed, self and other. The author of (2) also, as I have done, looks at the possible meanings attached not only to individual syllables, but to individual sounds. For example the author of (2), C. H. De Goeje, implies (in different words to mine) on page 239 of (2) that the sound associated with l is something "moveable" or "loose", whilst that of r is something that I interpret from the book as "moves/has energy" but is "inhbited". The author C. H. De Goeje in source (2) gives many discussions of this in relation to the Arawak language, such as implying in different words to my own, on page 129 that the sound t is associated with "movement in the direction of an object". The author C. H. De Goeje's work on this sound symbolism as a whole, is something I will look into in more detail in the future, but as I have mentioned, this article (the one in front of you) is mainly about my own interpretation of Arawak language symbolism in relation to what I have learned.
My own new work on sound symbolism in Arawak pertaining to Finnish, with a comparison table
I have done my own research on Arawak sound symbolism in relation to looking at similar words in other languages. Sometimes, I have found, that the same basic root words in unrelated languages, can sometimes show unusual similarities with each other. Often these root words are those which contain a sort of sound symbolism, a form of geometry, motion, thought or feeling being somehow, obviously or not, connected to those particular sounds. Take for example the following Arawak words compared with some words in the Finnish language. Note that all Arawak words in the table below are from the source The Arawak language of Guiana by C. H. De Goeje, (2).
| Arawak | Finnish |
|---|---|
| kona (when) | kun (when) |
| yara (hedge), yurua (thorn), egura (root) | juuri (root) |
| balisi (ash) | palaa (to burn) |
| kátti u-kúrrubu (full moon), u-kúrrubu possibly meaning “round”, “circular | kieriä (to roll), kiertää (to twist), kierros (a rotation or cycle) |
| awadulli (wind) | tuuli (wind) |
| kairi (island) | saari (island) |
| karri (to be ill) | sairas (ill, sick) |
| siba, šība (stone, rock) | kivi (rock, stone) |
| c-ikin (at the same moment), t-ikin (this only, now) | hetki (moment) |
| motogo, motóko, muttuku (sand) | muta (mud, clay) |
| meli, mehli (bread) | leipä (bread) |
| ananáka (scorpion) | hämähäkki (spider) |
| ika, ikka (a certain time, there was once) | aika (time), iki (primitive, eternal), ikä (age, life) |
| tókoro (flower), with prefix: to-tókoro (flower), Tokódi (Arawak tribal name, possibly meaning “lovely one” or “flower”) | kukka (flower) |
| aici, aditti (to know) | tietää (to know) |
Elaboration on some of the root-connections given in the table above
1). With regard to Arawak yara (hedge), yurua (thorn), egura (root) and Finnish juuri – root, compare also Quechua yuri – "plant" or "sprout", and Quechua yuriy – "origin", and also Basque erro – "root". If these root words are connected, the general implication and symbolic meaning seems to be concerning roots, growth and origin.
2). With regard to kairi and saari, compare also Quechua tara – “island”, Selknam tohrè – “island” (3), Selknam č-è-awr – “shore” (3), Waiwai ečhɨ-rɨ – “shore” (4) among others. Other potential connections include Proto-Afro-Asiatic *c̣aḥVraʔ- "sand" (1), which derives the word “Sahara” as in the desert. The English word "shore" shows similar sounds and semantics, where the original initial sound seems to have been [sk], hence also a possible relationship to the word “skerry” in English. Whilst the Finnish, Quechua and Arawak forms refer specifically to an “island”, we see that the Afro-Asiatic form and the word “shore” might be instead referring to specifically a build up of sand, which is itself associated with island formation. Whilst the Germanic forms like “skerry” are more indicative of a kind of hard mass above the water surface. Note the equivalence of the [k] in Arawak to the [s] in Finnish in the forms kairi and saari, a similar sound equivalence is found when comparing Arawak karri – “to be ill” and Finnish sairas – “sick, unwell”, itself a cognate to the English word “sore”.
3). With regard to siba, šība and kivi, the root behind kivi is common in Finnic, and is to a degree represented in other Uralic languages, such as for example Northern Mansi кав, kaw – ”millstone”. In South America and central America there are other examples of a similar sounding word meaning ”stone”, for example Proto-Totonacan *čiwiš – ”stone” (5), Waiwai tooΦu - “stone” or “rock” (4), and Wapishana kʰɨˀba - “stone” or “rock” (6), the last of which bares the closest similarity to Finnish kivi.
4). With regard to meli, mehli and leipä, any connection between these words would seem unlikely, unless one considers a reversal of the [p]/[m] and the [l]. Such reversals are not uncommon when looking at etymologies, and the sound [m] and [p] are also quite similar, and can frequently change from one to the other in several languages, for example in Finnish hammas – tooth, but hampaat – teeth, where the older Finnic form likely had [mp], but where in Modern Finnish this has become [mˑ], with the [p] only reappearing as an aspect of consonant gradation in certain forms of this noun. The word leipä is itself connected to various words in "Indo-European" languages, including English "loaf" and Slovak chlieb – “bread”, Russian хлеб, khleb – “bread” etc. It could be possible that the [h] in the form mehli in a sense could correspond to the initial [k] or [x] found in some Indo-European forms.
5). With regard to ananáka and hämähäkki, the Finnish word in question is also a bit mysterious etymologically, but it appears similar to for example Erzya šanžav. Further possible link words in the Americas include Quechua apasanka – "spider". Although these words are not exact matches, we might observe a similar group of repeated sounds, or ”geometry” visible in the phonemes and syllabic nature of these words. Of course, there are no wild scorpions in Finland, but both scorpions and spiders are arachnids, interestingly. There is also this idea perpetuated by Ior Bock that Finland was once in the tropics, although I do not know what to think of Ior Bock's writings.
6). With regards to tókoro/to-tókoro/Tokódi and kukka, compare also the Quechua words tuktu – "flower", and t’ika – “flower”. The word kukka has an unknown origin in Finnish, but in related Finnic languages one can find similar forms, e.g. Karelian kukka, whilst the Võro word kukk refers specifically to a conifer pinecone (I checked this with native Võro speakers). From the fact that the Võro form means “pinecone”, we might wonder whether or not the original meaning of this word was actually “flower”, or whether or not at a more basic, geometric level, the root refers to a thing, or shape, that opens, and which is in some way associated with being life-giving, including for example a “flower”, but also the way in which a pinecone “opens” to release its seeds. I can also discuss this from the perspective of Arawak, where tokóro appears to be from a root word implying growth and expansion and life giving qualities.
.Note that the word kátti, in kátti u-kúrrubu means "moon" I have discussed elsewhere in relation to words for "sun" and "moon" I have discussed in several books, ebooks and articles, including recently, and in my upcoming (not yet published) Silly Linguistics article The Komi-Zyrian language, The Talking Golden Idol (with art), and other languages in the Ural Mountains.
Further comments pertaining to the etymologies and to Maori
The point in discussing these words is not to show a specific connection between Arawak and Finnish, but rather to look at where, with regards to certain words and meanings, these languages could “connect” through symbolic language, or could share the same symbolic aspects to language to some degree. These links in language could correspond to prehistoric Maritime contact between the ancestors of some North Eurasian and South American indigenous peoples; or it could correspond to ancient links in language that have specifically come into Arawak and Uralic from some distant, prehistoric world. But, the why and the how is not necessarily important here, the point is merely to demonstrate examples of possibly ancient, symbolic language, through the scope of Arawak and Finnish.
I have published several books and articles on these subjects, including books over the past year, some of which look specifically at Quechua and other languages. I have my own ideas about how some of these connections came about, and it is curious for example that both Finnish oral traditions and Andean (Including Quechuan) traditions can place quite an emphasis on gods or ancestors who “came across the sea” in some way to teach humanity. In the Finnish traditions, the god Väinämöinen "swam" from the womb of his mother Ilmatar in the eternal sea, to teach humanity and use his magic songs. Note that Väinämöinen’s use of magic songs also connects to this idea of a relationship between language, magic and creation stories.
In Andean traditions, Viracocha “came” from the seas and shared knowledge with humanity in a similar way, whilst in Polynesian traditions the role of the god Tiki is rather similar. Pre-columbian Genetic contact between South America and Polynesian peoples has now been proven, and language links can be observed, take for example Quechua khumara, kumar – “sweet potato”, and Maori kūmara – “sweet potato”. A degree of vocabulary overlap can also be observed between Polynesian languages and Uralic, from my experience, e.g. Maori kurī – indigenous New Zealand dog, Finnish koira – dog; Maori puhi – to blow (wind), Quechua phuyu - cloud, and Finnish puhaltaa – to blow like wind, related to puhua – to speak, originally meaning “to blow” like wind; and for example Maori kite – “to see” compared with Finnish katsoa – “to watch”; and for example Maori kiri - “bark”, Finnish kuori – bark, shell, Quechua qara – “bark”.
I expand upon some of these etymologies a lot elsewhere (see "Other works on related topics by the author" further down this article).
Sound symbolism in Guaymí
The Guaymí words sourced below, I learned from reading the book Guaymí grammar and dictionary with some ethnological notes, by Ephraim S. Alphonse (7).
Guaymí is one of the Chibchan languages, a family of languages from central America, that also includes for example Cabécar and Bribri. The Americas have a large number of unique language families, and Bribri is not an aggluntative language like Arawak is. Guaymí can in a sense be described as a more fusional language, and it also possesses prepositions as do many Indo-European languages. Whilst the previous section of this article included introducing the idea of similar sound symbolism perhaps being visible through looking at Arawak and Finnish, from my experience, only certain languages share certain key words or root words. Guaymí does not share these same root words, and shares few similarities in vocabulary to that of any language I have studied. One thing that is quite prevalent in Guaymí is that a smallish number of relatively common root words have a range of different meanings, the interconnectedness of which does not readily make sense to somebody who is Guaymí and who understands the deeper metaphysical and symbolic meaning behind these words with their multiple meanings. Take for example the Guaymí word ngi, which can mean “wood”, or “worm”. And in many senses one can easily see how the movement and behaviour of a worm does, on a symbolic level, somewhat resemble the shape and movement of tree roots. But this is just my speculation, I do not know why ngi means both “wood” and “worm”.
Then there is for example ngö – ”holy, entire, perfect”. The word dru, which can mean a conch, or a shoulder. The word trö means ”shark”, or “back”, and the word tö means for example ”want, will, desire, mind” or “need”. The word sö means ”moon”, or “tobacco”, du means “war” or “canoe”, kri means “big”, or “tree”, and koin means “heaven, good” or “clean”.
Reconstructions of the Proto-Chibchan language also give a few words with many distinct but metaphysically related meanings, for example Proto-Chibchan *ˈká - place, time, environment, land (8), *ᵐbaʔ - beam of light or heat (9), *siᵐba – god or wind (9), *kaⁿd- ~ *kat- stick, bone or tree (9).
From looking at the Proto-Chibchan wordlists on Wiktionary I would imagine that the Guaymí sö meaning "moon" or “tobacco” is related to Proto-Chibchan *siʔ – moon (9), but at least in this proto-language reconstruction, no meaning of “tobacco” is implied. I think that the Proto-Chibchan *siᵐba – god or wind (9), may be connected to the name of the god Sibö (the Teribe name) or Sibu in the Bribri and Cabecar languages. The oral traditions and wisdom of the Chibchan-speaking peoples is very fascinating and interesting I think, including that connected to Sibö.
More on sound symbolism, more on "language of the birds", and examples of whistled language and how they pertain to mythology
When I was around 18 I took an interest in the i-ching, a Chinese divination system, based upon the idea of an inherent knowledge, geometry and mathematics within the earliest Chinese writing, and that using this divination system can enable one to interface with, and communicate with the cosmos and spirits beyond what we would normally be able to. Essentially, this idea is again connected to “sound symbolism” and to the idea that language is a doorway to cosmic understanding, to that which is outside of the human realm of thought and waking consciousness. The Norse used the runic alphabet in a very similar manner, albeit with far fewer symbolic characters, whilst in Ireland, the Ogham alphabet represented a similar link between language, magic, nature and the gods.
Sound symbolism and the relationship between the sacred, and language, is something that can be studied or looked at from as many starting points as there are languages to study. Some of you might agree with me with regard to there being some kind of possible connection between Uralic and various indigenous American language families, for example Arawak and Quechua. However, when we look at Chibchan languages for example, their words are often monosyllabic. And most of these words have highly specific meanings as monosyllabic words, and the sound system inherent within them seems almost entirely unrelated to the kinds of potential similarities seen between longer words in Arawak and Finnish for example.
I say this to help demonstrate that even though some, unrelated languages, do in my opinion share specific connections, these connections are not a “one idea fits all”. Whilst Arawak could have some connection to Uralic, in my opinion, by and large, from my experience, the languages of the Americas share very little in common with languages outside of the Americas.
Another fascinating family of indigenous American languages of central America, are the Chinantecan languages. Chinantecan languages have largely only monosyllabic words, that are distinguished by a large number of possible tones. Sochiapam Chinantec for example can distinguish words by so many tones, that sometimes the actual phonemes aren’t necessarily so important, because the tone on each word appears to more or less carry all of the information needed. This means that Sochiapam Chinantec can literally be “whistled” between different speakers, with a level of comprehension as if the language were being spoken. On an interesting note with regards to languages being "whistled" and certain kinds of sacred language, and the "language of the birds", I was recently reading a book, titled: WARRIORS GODS & SPIRITS from CENTRAL & SOUTH AMERICAN MYTHOLOGY, text by Douglas Gifford, illustrations by John Sibbick. Within this amazing book (and with beautiful illustrations), is a story titled: The names of the stars (10), on pages 105 to 108, with illustration on pages 106 and 107, and some of the text being on pages 106 and 108. This story is connected to the Bororo tribe. According to this story, the "trees" used a kind of whistle-language to speak to the stars, and the stars, from what I understand, also reply in a whistled-language. The main character of this story learns the names of the trees, as the stars seem to whistle their names to them. It is also implied that the character also learned the names of the stars, through this "whistle-language". Note that the aforementioned book, WARRIORS GODS & SPIRITS from CENTRAL & SOUTH AMERICAN MYTHOLOGY, text by Douglas Gifford, illustrations by John Sibbick, also contains another story titled The language of birds, given as reference (11) in this article, even though it is from the same book as reference (10). In reference (11), The language of birds, a story pertaining to the a man who encounters a group of "bird people". They teach this man to look like them. The story is shortish but complex, but only towards the end does the linguistic element become clear, wherein it is implied that originally birds and humans spoke the same language, and that only later, the birds come forth one by one, to receive different languages, the idea being implied that this allows the birds to express their thoughts in their own way. This story is a bit different from several others concerning the "language of the birds" as it implies that the humans spoke the original language, and not the birds.
So in some languages, for example in Arawak and Finnish and the words ananáka and hämähäkki, we see that any ancient sound symbolism present is visible through the occurance of particular sound patterns as they pertain to vowels and consonants. This is particulatly true in Finnish, a language with vowel harmony and few distinct consonants, where vowel harmony and length tends to distinguish ideas and words. Afro-Asiatic languages can be quite different from this, where it appears that in Proto-Afro-Asiatic especially, primarily symbolic meaning is associated with a particular group of sounds, but where the exact vowels and order of consonants is less important, hence the trisyllabic roots of Arabic for example. Whilst in languages like Sochiapam Chinantec, where the majority of words are single-syllabled, symbolic information is instead to a large degree indicated by tone.
What I am trying to say here is that there are many, distinct ways, in which meaning and symbolism is deeply embedded into languages. And for example, any kind of possible related symbolism in Arawak and Finnish is not going to be much help in discussing an indigenous language, where symbolic meaning is highly orientated around tone. If one is looking at the etymology of Finnish words, one has quite obvious patterns of vowels and consonants to use as a basis, whereas when looking at Chinantecan etymology and word origins, one has a lot of tones, and a lot of monosyllabic words that are often only distinguished by tone. One cannot really derive any kind of potential proto-form using monosyllabic words distinguished by tone.
Even though I do believe that there is an inherent connection between the music of the cosmos, as it were, and our languages, I do not believe there is “one” original language or “one” original set of words. If anything, languages like the Chinantecan languages make me wonder whether or not language, as we speak it as humans, developed independently in different places. If our languages do correspond in some way to the natural music and “vibrational nature” of the cosmos, then there must not only be one form of this music.
I hope this article was an interesting read.
About the author (written in 3rd person by the author): Linden Alexander Pentecost was born in the UK and is a resident of the UK currently in Northern England. He has studied at an official level: Scottish Gaelic, Irish, Finnish and Quechua, and has spent the last several years writing about many topics in relation to languages, etymology, mythology, animism, archaeology, philosophy and ancient history. He hopes that humanity will in the future recognise even more the importance of indigenous peoples, cultures and languages, as well as their transformative ability to help understand, and to better heal our planet as a whole.
Other works on related topics by the author
I have done a lot of research on the connections between languages, including those in the Americas in relation to elsewhere, and specifically have written about connections between Quechua and Finnish for example, among many others. Some (but by no means all) of the newer primary writings by myself the author (Linden Alexander Pentecost) on related topics, are listed below. These also contain entirely separate information and topics to that which is in the article you are currently looking at, although certain bits of research are shared, in different contexts and with new information, in this article. The books listed below also contain entirely separate articles and information from each other. All the books below were published in the UK.
1). Possible connections between indigenous American languages and languages elsewhere, with particular reference to Quechuan languages, and with comments on pyramids, elongated skulls, giants and other philosophical points by Linden Alexander Pentecost, published on the 8th April 2023 (only available in print format)
2). A study of ancient languages, history and consciousness by Linden Alexander Pentecost, published on the 5th of June 2023 (PDF ebook only)
3). An exploration of Gaelic dialects, other languages, and other sections including the missing Omniglot article, by Linden Alexander Pentecost, published on the 12th of July 2023 (only available as PDF ebook).
4). Magical language, including Finnish-Quechua cognates – published via bookofdunbarra, UK – the second in a new series of books published via bookofdunbarra, by Linden Alexander Pentecost, published on the 18th of January 2024 (only available in PDF ebook format).
5). The Prehistoric Canary Islands, word-links across the sea, and mysteries (includes new horned goddesses art pieces) published via bookofdunbarra (UK) No. 7 in a new series of books published through BookofDunbarra 2024 by Linden Alexander Pentecost, published on the 23rd of January 2024 (only available in print format). - Note this book contains some references to Arawak and Quechua and other indigenous American languages in related to Guanche, and is completely separate from the book Magical language, including Finnish-Quechua cognates – published via bookofdunbarra, UK – the second in a new series of books published via bookofdunbarra, which was published a few days prior to publishing The Prehistoric Canary Islands, word-links across the sea, and mysteries (includes new horned goddesses art pieces) published via bookofdunbarra (UK) No. 7 in a new series of books published through BookofDunbarra 2024.
6). Prehistoric Dartmoor language, North Sámi and Gaelic, and other topics (only available in PDF format) 27/02/2024, No. 12 (the last for now) in a series of new books published by bookofdunbarra (all the author’s books are published in the UK), by Linden Alexander Pentecost, published on the 27th of February 2024. Note that like the other books, the content of this book is separate, unique and different. (This book is only available in PDF ebook format).
References:
This, like all of my articles and writings, was written from my own research, but as in many articles I needed to use references for certain things.
Note that in addition to the numbered references in this article, a reference to the figurehead of the ship Argo regarding the "language of the birds" as reported by Apollonius Rhodius is given in the first paragraph of this article, as well as a reference to "Language of the Birds"/Птичий язык in “Russian Fairy Tales”/Народные русские сказки by Alexander Nikolayevich Afanasyev/ Александр Николаевич Афанасьев also being given in the first paragraph of this article. Note also that the Arawak vocabulary from source (2) and the Guaymí vocabulary from source (7) is mentioned on a high number of occasions in this article (particularly the Arawak vocabulary from source (2), therefore when words in these languages are given, the source is indicated in the section itself and not after each individual word. Referencing to the Arawak vocabulary is also given at the start of the article.
(1). Proto-Afro-Asiatic vocabulary is by Alexander Militarev and Olga Stolbova, the vocabulary is available at starlingdb.org (database by Sergei Starostin)
(2). The Arawak language of Guiana by C. H. De Goeje
(3). Elena L. Najlis. 2023. Selknam dictionary.
In: Key, Mary Ritchie & Comrie, Bernard (eds.)
The Intercontinental Dictionary Series.
Leipzig: Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology.
(Available online at http://ids.clld.org/contributions/311, Accessed on 2024-07-16.)
(4). Robert E. Hawkins. 2023. Wai Wai dictionary.
In: Key, Mary Ritchie & Comrie, Bernard (eds.)
The Intercontinental Dictionary Series.
Leipzig: Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology.
(Available online at http://ids.clld.org/contributions/175, Accessed on 2024-07-16.)
(5). MacKay, Carolyn J., Trechsel, Frank (2018) “An alternative reconstruction of Proto-Totonac-Tepehua”, in International Journal of American Linguistics, volume 84, number 1, The University of Chicago, pages 51–92
(6). Colette Melville and Frances V. Tracy and Olive Williams. 2023. Wapishana dictionary.
In: Key, Mary Ritchie & Comrie, Bernard (eds.)
The Intercontinental Dictionary Series.
Leipzig: Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology.
(Available online at http://ids.clld.org/contributions/266, Accessed on 2024-07-16.)
(7). Guaymí grammar and dictionary with some ethnological notes, by Ephraim S. Alphonse
(8). Constenla Umaña, Adolfo (1981). Comparative Chibchan Phonology. Ph.D. dissertation, Department of Linguistics, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia
(9). Pache, Matthias J. 2018. Contributions to Chibchan Historical Linguistics. Doctoral dissertation, Universiteit Leiden
(10). The story The names of the stars, in the book: WARRIORS GODS & SPIRITS from CENTRAL & SOUTH AMERICAN MYTHOLOGY, text by Douglas Gifford, illustrations by John Sibbick.
(11). The story The language of birds, in the book WARRIORS GODS & SPIRITS from CENTRAL & SOUTH AMERICAN MYTHOLOGY, text by Douglas Gifford, illustrations by John Sibbick. Note that reference (11) in this article references a different story to reference (10), but they are in the same book.